Well, in one sense, progress may have happened. That is, the character of the people and their culture must have changed progressively through the centuries. And there were probably several reasons for the change, reflected in different periods and events in Rhudaurian history.

The region claimed by the Kings of Rhudaur in the middle Third Age extended eastward from the Weather Hills to the Misty Mountains, and south from the Mitheithel (Hoarwell) where it flowed past the Ettenmoors to the tip of the Angle, the land between the Mitheithel and Bruinen (Loudwater) rivers. The rivers joined together above Eregion and became the Gwathlo (Greyflood), the chief cities of which were Tharbad and Lond Daer Ened (formerly Vinyalonde).

When Elendil arrived at Lindon with four ships of Faithful Numenoreans, Eriador was already well-populated by Elves, men of Edainic descent, Numenoreans, men of mixed heritage, and men who are probably best described as "Easterlings". These Easterlings must have dwelt in the foot-hills of the Misty Mountains, mostly north of Imladris (Rivendell). There may have been some clans which lived in the lowlands east of the North Downs and the Weather Hills.

The Numenorean peoples must have accepted Elendil as their lord almost immediately. Faithful Numenoreans had been leaving Numenor for years, and most of them came from Andunie, the province of Numenor where Elendil's father had been Lord, until he was removed by Ar-Pharazon. The salvation of a beloved noble family should have encouraged the Numenoreans of Eriador to retain their traditions.

In "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age", J.R.R. Tolkien writes that Elendil's "people dwelt in many places in Eriador about the courses of the Lhun and the Baranduin; but his chief city was at Annuminas beside the water of Lake Nenuial." Yet other places of Numenorean settlement included "Fornost upon the North Downs" and "in Cardolan, and in the hills of Rhudaur."

We also know, from other writings, about the city of Tharbad. Lond Daer Ened may have been destroyed in the floods which ravaged the coastlands of Middle-earth after Numenor was destroyed and the world was changed. Or it may be that Lond Daer Ened became deserted sometime early in the Third Age, much as Annuminas did. But the principal inference we may draw from these references to Elendil's people is that the majority of them dwelt in western Eriador.

So what made Rhudaur so important that Elendil sent people to colonize the region? Furthermore, why were the Dunedain never able to fully integrate with the local population? It must be that the hill-folk were neither friendly nor hostile to the Elves, but their lands were deemed strategically important to Gil-galad's realm. That is, prior to the founding of Arnor, Gil-galad's authority extended all the way to the Vales of Anduin. Gil-galad couldn't have simply ruled just the Elves of Eriador; he must also have been ruling the Men of Eriador. And that means he must have either been ruling the Men of Rhudaur, or he was preventing Men from settling there.

When Isildur and Anarion founded Gondor, they probably used Pelargir as a base of operations. The city was an ancient royal haven of Numenor and most likely had a large population. But the Numenoreans had already spread out from Pelargir to colonize lands along the Anduin river. Isildur and Anarion built the city of Osgiliath upon a vast bridge farther up the river. The bridge itself had to connect roads, but there is no indication of where the roads led prior to the founding of the two cities of Minas Anor and Minas Ithil.

Most likely there was a road leading north along Anduin's eastern bank from Pelargir which crossed the river at Osgiliath's location. This road then led through Anorien to Calenardhon and Cair Andros. There were probably scattered Numenorean settlements along the river. Isildur must have chosen to build Minas Ithil in the Ephel Duath to prevent incursions from Mordor. Sauron had left Middle-earth, but his creatures had not. And Anarion built Minas Anor against Mindolluin to defend Gondor against raids from the Men of Ered Nimrais.

As Gondor felt threatened by its neighbors in the south, so Arnor may have felt threatened by its neighbors in the north. Isildur and Anarion built the fortresses of Angrenost (Isengard) and Aglarond (the Glittering Caves) to control the Gap of Calenardhon. These fortresses presented no strategic threat to armies invading Gondor from the east, but they could repel or at least delay forces advancing from Enedwaith down into Gondor, or forces attempting to march around the western end of the Ered Nimrais into Calenardhon.

Arnor would rely upon Tharbad to contain the Gwathuirim of Enedwaith. Lond Daer Ened might have served a similar though less useful strategic purpose. Standing upon the southern shore of the Gwathlo, Lond Daer Ened was cut off from Arnor. It may simply have been abandoned because it could not be strategically supported. Elendil, despite incorporating many Men from Eriador into his kingdom, must still have had considerably fewer people in his realm than Ar-Pharazon had once governed.

So the presence of tribes of Men in the northern foot-hills of the Misty Mountains, perhaps descended from some of the Easterlings of the First Age who had served Morgoth, would give Elendil some reason to be concerned. The Easterlings might have been awed by the Elves, but if there were only a few Numenoreans living in Rhudaur, the Easterlings may not have been very intimidated.

Rhudaur would control the passage from Lindon to Imladris. But it would also control the passage from the Vales of Anduin into Eriador. The Elves could travel safely through Eregion down to the Redhorn Pass over Caradhras, but they probably also used the High Pass by Imladris frequently. It would make sense for Elendil to control the region if Gil-galad had to give up his authority over the lands between Rhudaur and Lindon. Elrond probably did not have enough Elves to control a large region.

Elendil may therefore have sent soldiers to establish outposts in Rhudaur along the Road. In turn, these soldiers may have entered into trading agreements with some of the hill clans. The hill-folk would have benefitted from joining Elendil's kingdom. Perhaps they engaged in frequent feuds among themselves, and the victorious clans drove the weaker clans south. If that were the case, the Numenoreans would be increasing their strength by welcoming the weaker clans while at the same time opening the door for barbarization.

In the early generations such a prospect would have seemed remote. Elendil's four shiploads of Numenoreans couldn't have fielded a great army, but he had plenty of men to recruit from in Eriador. All that changed in the War of the Last Alliance, however. Now the Numenoreans assmbled a vast army from all of Arnor, and Elendil joined forces with Gil-galad and other Elven kings to march against Mordor. Although we don't know the details of the war, we know that Arnor suffered tremendous casualties in the battles, such that its population became diminished.

In the wake of Elendil's war with Sauron, Arnor would have to change its administrative policies. Valandil, the young king raised by Elrond, would have held on to Rhudaur because Imladris was important to him. He was born there and had been raised there. Rhudaur was also probably the location of many camps established by Gil-galad and Elendil during the years they were training and equipping their armies. The region might not have seemed a very tempting target for raiders from the north for a generation or two.

But in less than 900 years Rhudaur would leave Arnor and establish its own dynasty, descended from Valandil. To justify the establishment of the kingdom, Rhudaur must have possessed a significant population and exploitable resources. So the question arises of, was there a city in Rhudaur which eventually fell into ruin much as Annuminas had? Where, for example, did the Kings of Rhudaur live?

Valandur, the 8th High King of Arnor, and the 5th High King to rule after Valandil, was slain in the year 652 of the Third Age, according to the genealogies. Tolkien never explains this death. Valandur only ruled Arnor for 50 years. He probably should have lived another 30 years or so, and since the Numenoreans really only began to feel old age in about the last ten years of their lives, he must have been very strong and healthy. So it seems he died in a war. But what war? Even Gondor was at peace.

Since Tolkien never mentions any strife or rebellion in Arnor at this time, it's unlikely Valandur was slain in a civil war. Instead, he must have been killed while fighting external enemies. He could have ventured off into the east, but it seems more likely he was fighting with the hill-folk who dwelt north of Rhudaur. These would be the ancestors of the Men of Angmar, and they were never apparently incorporated into the Kingdom of Arnor.

Since Arnor's population had been diminished by the War of the Last Alliance, it follows that by the 7th century the clans in the northern hills were ready to expand, and they would have found Arnor was weak. Perhaps there had always been continuous raids into the south, but by Valandur's reign a King of Arnor felt it necessary to take the field. The easiest path down into Rhudaur from the north must been along the Mitheithel river. The Last Bridge stood where the East-West road crossed the Mitheithel. All that we know of the bridge is that it faced a steep slope in the Road on the western side, possessed three arches, stood a mile from the ravine that Aragorn took up into the northern hills on the eastern side, and had lasted until the end of the Third Age.

The Last Bridge must have been worth protecting, and there had probably been a Numenorean fortress in the area at one time, perhaps even a small town or city. It seems that the Last Bridge would be the best location outside the Angle for a Numenorean dynasty to make its seat. Bridges were important to the Numenoreans. Osgiliath and Tharbad were both built on or around major bridges. There was no bridge at Cair Andros, but the armies were able to cross the Anduin there and Gondor maintained a garrison on the island for many years. The Undeeps, in northern Calenardhon, were also fortified against invasion. Even the Bridge of Stone Bows, which crossed the Baranduin, remained a place of activity and settlement in the Shire at the end of the Third Age.

If the Last Bridge marked the location of a Numenorean fortress or town, it may also have been the place where Valandur died. Or at least where he launched his campaign from. He could have followed the Mitheithel north, or met a force of Easterlings marching south along the river, and prevented them from taking control over the bridge. If the king's death in battle means that his army was driven back, they would not have suffered defeat for long. The Last Bridge was located at the heart of Rhudaur, but also sat upon the border of Cardolan. If an enemy marched through Rhudaur from the east, the Last Bridge would have to be defended to protect Cardolan.

Thus it may be that the Numenoreans of Rhudaur concentrated their numbers around the Last Bridge. It would be the focal point of their society, and the most important of their fortresses. When Rhudaurian kings launched wars against Arthedain and Cardolan for control over the Weather Hills, they could assmbled their forces at the Last Bridge. Cardolan would, in fact, have to expend considerable resources to defend itself against an invasion from Rhudaur. And by building up its border forces, Cardolan would give Rhudaur just cause to build up its own border garrisons. Hence, if the Kings of Rhudaur could not maintain a standing army, they would have to rely upon local lords to defend points of entry along the Road and the Mitheithel. So the best opportunities for Numenorean lads to rise in the social circles would lie in western Rhudaur.

When Sauron began stirring again in Middle-earth, and the Hobbits started leaving the Vales of Anduin, the Harfoots entered Eriador and most likely settled in Rhudaur. If northern Rhudaur were controlled by the semi-barbaric hill clans, the Harfoots may have settled along the Road near the Last Bridge. They were too smal to provide Rhudaur with useful soldiers, but the Dunedain could have taught them many trades to expand industrial output. The Kings of Rhudaur may have increased their armies, and thus could fight longer, larger wars. Their chances of dying those wars, of producing fewer heirs, and of losing their heirs, would have increased. Cardolan, threatened by a stronger Rhudaur, would have become more warlike, too. Hence, its kings would also be more likely to die in battle, heirless.

The frequent warfare must therefore have opened up opportunities for the hill clans. Although Stoors settled in the Angle in the 12th century, when Angmar arose around the year 1300 the Hobbits decided that Rhudaur was no longer safe for them. The Harfoots and Fallohides began migrating west to Arthedain. Rhudaur must therefore have come into direct conflict with Angmar, and it may be that the Heirs of Isildur, already diminished in number by their feuds with Cardolan and Arthedain, actually died while fighting Angmar. The Dunedain were few in number, the Hobbits had left, and the hill clans forged a secret alliance with Angmar. When Argeleb claimed royal authority over all of former Arnor in 1349, Rhudaur openly sided with Angmar.

In the war of 1409, the remaining Dunedain were slain or driven out of the country. The Stoors of the Angle fled west to the Vales of Anduin or south to Dunland. Imladris was cut off from Arthedain, Cardolan, and Lindon. Angmar gained effective control over all the lands east of the Weather Hills as far south as the East-West road. The Last Bridge was lost to the Numenoreans. The hill clans which had seized control over Rhudaur seem themselves to have been swept aside by new Men sent out of Angmar. Why? Were they not subservient enough? Had they been tainted by contact with the Dunedain and the Eldar? Had they refused to attack Imladris, which Angmar subsequently laid siege to?

If Elendil's objective in colonizing Rhudaur was to achieve strategic control over the East-West road, and to defend Imladris against northern enemies, the losses Arnor suffered in the War of the Last Alliance made the eventual loss of Rhudaur inevitable. As the Dunedain waned and turned their attention toward fighting each other, they would have relied upon other peoples to defend their northern borders. If the hill clans were left mostly to themselves, their alliance with Angmar makes sense. If the relocation of many Hobbits to Rhudaur in the 11th and 12th centuries made it possible for the Kings of Rhudaur to wage almost endless war against Arthedain and Cardolan, then the departure of the Hobbits would have made it almost impossible for later kings to retain their power.

Nonetheless, with the destruction of Angmar in 1975, Aranarth elected not to restore the Kingdom of Arnor because the peoples of Eriador became few in number. Although Tolkien does not say when the Dunedain recolonized southern Rhudaur, by the end of the Third Age Aragorn's people were living in the Angle. Aranarth's sons were raised in Imladris. The Rangers of Eriador appear to have been active in former Rhudaur throughout the last millennium of the Third Age. Their activity and the location of their people imply that Aranarth or his successors adopted Elendil's old strategy of drawing the line against incursion in Rhudaur. And this time they stayed the course, avoiding further divisions and strife among themselves.

Michael Martinez is the author of Visualizing Middle-earth, which may be purchased directly from Xlibris Corp. or through any online bookstore. You may also special order it from your local bookstore. The ISBN is 0-7388-3408-4.